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Home  ›  Is A Human Skin Cell A Type Of Bacteria, Protist, Plant Cell, Or Animal Cell?

Is A Human Skin Cell A Type Of Bacteria, Protist, Plant Cell, Or Animal Cell?

Written By Monday, July 4, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Microscopic living organism

A microorganism, or microbe,[a] is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in its single-celled form or equally a colony of cells.

The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from ancient times, such every bit in Jain scriptures from sixth century BC India. The scientific written report of microorganisms began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused nutrient spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, and anthrax.

Because microorganisms include most unicellular organisms from all iii domains of life they can be extremely diverse. Two of the iii domains, Archaea and Bacteria, simply incorporate microorganisms. The third domain Eukaryota includes all multicellular organisms as well as many unicellular protists and protozoans that are microbes. Some protists are related to animals and some to green plants. At that place are too many multicellular organisms that are microscopic, namely micro-animals, some fungi, and some algae, but these are generally not considered microorganisms.[ further explanation needed ]

Microorganisms tin can take very different habitats, and alive everywhere from the poles to the equator, deserts, geysers, rocks, and the deep sea. Some are adapted to extremes such as very hot or very common cold atmospheric condition, others to high pressure, and a few, such every bit Deinococcus radiodurans, to high radiation environments. Microorganisms as well make up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms. There is evidence that 3.45-billion-twelvemonth-old Australian rocks in one case contained microorganisms, the earliest direct evidence of life on Globe.[1] [2]

Microbes are important in human being culture and health in many means, serving to ferment foods and treat sewage, and to produce fuel, enzymes, and other bioactive compounds. Microbes are essential tools in biology every bit model organisms and have been put to employ in biological warfare and bioterrorism. Microbes are a vital component of fertile soil. In the human being body, microorganisms brand upward the human microbiota, including the essential gut flora. The pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases are microbes and, as such, are the target of hygiene measures.

Discovery [edit]

Ancient precursors [edit]

The possible existence of microscopic organisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the seventeenth century. By the sixth century BC, the Jains of present-solar day Republic of india postulated the existence of tiny organisms called nigodas.[3] These nigodas are said to be born in clusters; they live everywhere, including the bodies of plants, animals, and people; and their life lasts only for a fraction of a second.[four] According to the Jain leader Mahavira, the humans destroy these nigodas on a massive calibration, when they eat, breathe, sit, and motility.[three] Many modern Jains assert that Mahavira's teachings presage the beingness of microorganisms as discovered by modern science.[five]

The primeval known idea to indicate the possibility of diseases spreading by yet unseen organisms was that of the Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro in a first-century BC book entitled On Agriculture in which he called the unseen creatures animalcules, and warns against locating a homestead most a swamp:[6]

… and because there are bred certain minute creatures that cannot be seen by the optics, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and they crusade serious diseases.[6]

In The Canon of Medicine (1020), Avicenna suggested that tuberculosis and other diseases might be contagious.[7] [8]

Early on modern [edit]

Akshamsaddin (Turkish scientist) mentioned the microbe in his work Maddat ul-Hayat (The Textile of Life) well-nigh two centuries prior to Antonie van Leeuwenhoek'south discovery through experimentation:

It is incorrect to assume that diseases appear one by one in humans. Disease infects past spreading from one person to another. This infection occurs through seeds that are then pocket-sized they cannot be seen but are alive.[9] [x]

In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were acquired by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by directly or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances.[11]

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is considered to be ane of the fathers of microbiology. He was the starting time in 1673 to discover and conduct scientific experiments with microorganisms, using elementary single-lensed microscopes of his own design.[12] [13] [xiv] [15] Robert Hooke, a contemporary of Leeuwenhoek, also used microscopy to detect microbial life in the course of the fruiting bodies of moulds. In his 1665 book Micrographia, he made drawings of studies, and he coined the term cell.[xvi]

19th century [edit]

Louis Pasteur showed that Spallanzani'due south findings held fifty-fifty if air could enter through a filter that kept particles out.

Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) exposed boiled broths to the air, in vessels that independent a filter to prevent particles from passing through to the growth medium, and too in vessels without a filter, but with air allowed in via a curved tube so dust particles would settle and not come in contact with the goop. By humid the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensured that no microorganisms survived within the broths at the beginning of his experiment. Nothing grew in the broths in the course of Pasteur'due south experiment. This meant that the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, equally spores on grit, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. Thus, Pasteur refuted the theory of spontaneous generation and supported the germ theory of affliction.[17]

In 1876, Robert Koch (1843–1910) established that microorganisms can cause disease. He establish that the blood of cattle that were infected with anthrax always had big numbers of Bacillus anthracis. Koch found that he could transmit anthrax from one brute to another by taking a small sample of blood from the infected fauna and injecting it into a good for you one, and this caused the healthy beast to become sick. He too found that he could grow the bacteria in a nutrient broth, and so inject it into a salubrious fauna, and crusade affliction. Based on these experiments, he devised criteria for establishing a causal link between a microorganism and a disease and these are now known equally Koch's postulates.[18] Although these postulates cannot exist applied in all cases, they practice retain historical importance to the development of scientific thought and are still being used today.[19]

The discovery of microorganisms such as Euglena that did not fit into either the animal or plant kingdoms, since they were photosynthetic like plants, simply motile like animals, led to the naming of a 3rd kingdom in the 1860s. In 1860 John Hogg called this the Protoctista, and in 1866 Ernst Haeckel named it the Protista.[twenty] [21] [22]

The work of Pasteur and Koch did not accurately reverberate the true diversity of the microbial world because of their exclusive focus on microorganisms having direct medical relevance. It was not until the work of Martinus Beijerinck and Sergei Winogradsky tardily in the nineteenth century that the true breadth of microbiology was revealed.[23] Beijerinck fabricated 2 major contributions to microbiology: the discovery of viruses and the evolution of enrichment culture techniques.[24] While his work on the tobacco mosaic virus established the basic principles of virology, information technology was his evolution of enrichment culturing that had the most immediate bear upon on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies. Winogradsky was the beginning to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played past microorganisms in geochemical processes.[25] He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.[23] French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages and was ane of the earliest applied microbiologists.[26]

Classification and construction [edit]

Microorganisms can be institute almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are nigh ever microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are too microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, also as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are mostly regarded every bit not living and therefore not considered as microorganisms, although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the report of viruses.[27] [28] [29]

Evolution [edit]

Bacteria Archaea Eukaryota Aquifex Thermotoga Bacteroides–Cytophaga Planctomyces "Cyanobacteria" Proteobacteria Spirochetes Gram-positives Chloroflexi Thermoproteus–Pyrodictium Thermococcus celer Methanococcus Methanobacterium Methanosarcina Haloarchaea Entamoebae Slime molds Animals Fungi Plants Ciliates Flagellates Trichomonads Microsporidia Diplomonads

Single-celled microorganisms were the offset forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3.5 billion years ago.[30] [31] [32] Further evolution was slow,[33] and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, (much of the history of life on Earth), all organisms were microorganisms.[34] [35] Leaner, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years one-time, which shows that the morphology of microorganisms has inverse piddling since at least the Triassic period.[36] The newly discovered biological role played by nickel, however – especially that brought about past volcanic eruptions from the Siberian Traps – may accept accelerated the evolution of methanogens towards the end of the Permian–Triassic extinction event.[37]

Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast charge per unit of evolution. Near microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and leaner are also able to freely commutation genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction, even between widely divergent species.[38] This horizontal factor transfer, coupled with a loftier mutation rate and other ways of transformation, allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, every bit it has led to the evolution of multidrug resistant pathogenic leaner, superbugs, that are resistant to antibiotics.[39]

A possible transitional form of microorganism between a prokaryote and a eukaryote was discovered in 2012 by Japanese scientists. Parakaryon myojinensis is a unique microorganism larger than a typical prokaryote, but with nuclear textile enclosed in a membrane as in a eukaryote, and the presence of endosymbionts. This is seen to be the starting time plausible evolutionary form of microorganism, showing a phase of development from the prokaryote to the eukaryote.[40] [41]

Archaea [edit]

Archaea are prokaryotic unicellular organisms, and form the start domain of life, in Carl Woese's three-domain organisation. A prokaryote is defined as having no cell nucleus or other membrane leap-organelle. Archaea share this defining feature with the bacteria with which they were once grouped. In 1990 the microbiologist Woese proposed the three-domain system that divided living things into bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes,[42] and thereby split the prokaryote domain.

Archaea differ from bacteria in both their genetics and biochemistry. For case, while bacterial cell membranes are made from phosphoglycerides with ester bonds, archaean membranes are made of ether lipids.[43] Archaea were originally described as extremophiles living in extreme environments, such as hot springs, just take since been constitute in all types of habitats.[44] Only at present are scientists starting time to realize how common archaea are in the environment, with Thermoproteota (formerly Crenarchaeota) being the nearly common grade of life in the ocean, dominating ecosystems below 150 m in depth.[45] [46] These organisms are also common in soil and play a vital role in ammonia oxidation.[47]

The combined domains of archaea and bacteria make up the most various and abundant group of organisms on World and inhabit practically all environments where the temperature is below +140 °C. They are constitute in water, soil, air, equally the microbiome of an organism, hot springs and even deep below the Earth's crust in rocks.[48] The number of prokaryotes is estimated to be around five nonillion, or v × 10xxx, accounting for at least half the biomass on Earth.[49]

The biodiversity of the prokaryotes is unknown, merely may be very large. A May 2016 estimate, based on laws of scaling from known numbers of species against the size of organism, gives an estimate of perhaps one trillion species on the planet, of which most would be microorganisms. Currently, only one-thousandth of one percent of that total have been described.[50] Archael cells of some species aggregate and transfer DNA from one prison cell to another through direct contact, peculiarly nether stressful ecology conditions that crusade DNA damage.[51] [52]

Leaner [edit]

Bacteria like archaea are prokaryotic – unicellular, and having no prison cell nucleus or other membrane-bound organelle. Leaner are microscopic, with a few extremely rare exceptions, such every bit Thiomargarita namibiensis.[53] Bacteria role and reproduce every bit individual cells, but they can often amass in multicellular colonies.[54] Some species such equally myxobacteria can aggregate into complex swarming structures, operating every bit multicellular groups as part of their life cycle,[55] or form clusters in bacterial colonies such as E.coli.

Their genome is ordinarily a circular bacterial chromosome – a single loop of Dna, although they can too harbor pocket-sized pieces of DNA called plasmids. These plasmids can be transferred between cells through bacterial conjugation. Leaner have an enclosing cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce past binary fission or sometimes by budding, but do not undergo meiotic sexual reproduction. Nonetheless, many bacterial species can transfer DNA between individual cells by a horizontal gene transfer process referred to equally natural transformation.[56] Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria this is a mechanism for survival, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can abound extremely rapidly and their numbers tin can double as chop-chop equally every 20 minutes.[57]

Eukaryotes [edit]

Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form are eukaryotes, including humans. However, many eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Dissimilar bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes comprise organelles such as the cell nucleus, the Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in their cells. The nucleus is an organelle that houses the DNA that makes upwardly a cell's genome. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) itself is arranged in complex chromosomes.[58] Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as they are the site of the citric acid wheel and oxidative phosphorylation. They evolved from symbiotic leaner and retain a remnant genome.[59] Like bacteria, plant cells take cell walls, and contain organelles such as chloroplasts in addition to the organelles in other eukaryotes. Chloroplasts produce energy from low-cal by photosynthesis, and were too originally symbiotic bacteria.[59]

Unicellular eukaryotes consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This qualification is pregnant since near multicellular eukaryotes consist of a unmarried cell called a zygote only at the beginning of their life cycles. Microbial eukaryotes can be either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have multiple jail cell nuclei.[60]

Unicellular eukaryotes unremarkably reproduce asexually by mitosis under favorable conditions. However, nether stressful conditions such equally nutrient limitations and other conditions associated with DNA damage, they tend to reproduce sexually by meiosis and syngamy.[61]

Protists [edit]

Of eukaryotic groups, the protists are nearly unremarkably unicellular and microscopic. This is a highly diverse group of organisms that are not easy to allocate.[62] [63] Several algae species are multicellular protists, and slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms.[64] The number of species of protists is unknown since but a modest proportion has been identified. Protist diversity is high in oceans, deep body of water-vents, river sediment and an acidic river, suggesting that many eukaryotic microbial communities may yet be discovered.[65] [66]

Fungi [edit]

The fungi have several unicellular species, such as bakery'south yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Some fungi, such equally the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic switching and abound as single cells in some environments, and filamentous hyphae in others.[67]

Plants [edit]

The dark-green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some greenish algae are classified equally protists, others such as charophyta are classified with embryophyte plants, which are the most familiar group of land plants. Algae can abound as single cells, or in long chains of cells. The greenish algae include unicellular and colonial flagellates, normally but non always with two flagella per cell, every bit well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In the Charales, which are the algae virtually closely related to higher plants, cells differentiate into several distinct tissues inside the organism. In that location are nearly 6000 species of green algae.[68]

Environmental [edit]

Microorganisms are establish in almost every habitat nowadays in nature, including hostile environments such every bit the North and Due south poles, deserts, geysers, and rocks. They as well include all the marine microorganisms of the oceans and deep body of water. Some types of microorganisms have adjusted to extreme environments and sustained colonies; these organisms are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles have been isolated from rocks as much as 7 kilometres below the Globe's surface,[69] and it has been suggested that the amount of organisms living below the World'south surface is comparable with the amount of life on or above the surface.[48] Extremophiles have been known to survive for a prolonged fourth dimension in a vacuum, and tin be highly resistant to radiation, which may even allow them to survive in space.[70] Many types of microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms; some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others can be damaging to the host organism (parasitism). If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are known as pathogens and and then they are sometimes referred to every bit microbes. Microorganisms play disquisitional roles in Earth's biogeochemical cycles as they are responsible for decomposition and nitrogen fixation.[71]

Bacteria utilise regulatory networks that allow them to adapt to almost every environmental niche on globe.[72] [73] A network of interactions amid diverse types of molecules including Deoxyribonucleic acid, RNA, proteins and metabolites, is utilised past the bacteria to reach regulation of gene expression. In bacteria, the principal function of regulatory networks is to control the response to environmental changes, for example nutritional condition and ecology stress.[74] A complex organization of networks permits the microorganism to coordinate and integrate multiple ecology signals.[72]

Extremophiles [edit]

Extremophiles are microorganisms that have adapted so that they tin survive and fifty-fifty thrive in farthermost environments that are normally fatal to most life-forms. Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive in high temperatures. Psychrophiles thrive in extremely depression temperatures. – Temperatures as high as 130 °C (266 °F),[75] as low as −17 °C (1 °F)[76] Halophiles such as Halobacterium salinarum (an archaean) thrive in high salt conditions, up to saturation.[77] Alkaliphiles thrive in an alkaline pH of about 8.five–11.[78] Acidophiles can thrive in a pH of 2.0 or less.[79] Piezophiles thrive at very loftier pressures: upwardly to i,000–2,000 atm, downwards to 0 atm every bit in a vacuum of space.[80] A few extremophiles such as Deinococcus radiodurans are radioresistant,[81] resisting radiation exposure of upwards to 5k Gy. Extremophiles are significant in different ways. They extend terrestrial life into much of the Globe'southward hydrosphere, crust and atmosphere, their specific evolutionary adaptation mechanisms to their extreme environment can be exploited in biotechnology, and their very existence under such farthermost conditions increases the potential for extraterrestrial life.[82]

Plants and Soil [edit]

The nitrogen bicycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. This is achieved by a number of diazotrophs. Ane way this tin occur is in the root nodules of legumes that incorporate symbiotic bacteria of the genera Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azorhizobium.[83]

The roots of plants create a narrow region known as the rhizosphere that supports many microorganisms known as the root microbiome.[84]

These microorganisms in the root microbiome are able to interact with each other and surrounding plants through signals and cues. For example, mycorrhizal fungi are able to communicate with the root systems of many plants through chemical signals between both the plant and fungi. This results in a mutualistic symbiosis between the 2. Nonetheless, these signals tin can exist eavesdropped by other microorganisms, such as the soil bacteria, Myxococcus xanthus, which preys on other bacteria. Eavesdropping, or the interception of signals from unintended receivers, such every bit plants and microorganisms, can pb to large-scale, evolutionary consequences. For example, signaler-receiver pairs, like found-microorganism pairs, may lose the ability to communicate with neighboring populations because of variability in eavesdroppers. In adapting to avoid local eavesdroppers, signal divergence could occur and thus, lead to the isolation of plants and microorganisms from the inability to communicate with other populations.[85]

Symbiosis [edit]

The photosynthetic cyanobacterium Hyella caespitosa (round shapes) with fungal hyphae (translucent threads) in the lichen Pyrenocollema halodytes

A lichen is a symbiosis of a macroscopic fungus with photosynthetic microbial algae or cyanobacteria.[86] [87]

Applications [edit]

Microorganisms are useful in producing foods, treating waste water, creating biofuels and a wide range of chemicals and enzymes. They are invaluable in research as model organisms. They have been weaponised and sometimes used in warfare and bioterrorism. They are vital to agriculture through their roles in maintaining soil fertility and in decomposing organic affair.

Nutrient production [edit]

Microorganisms are used in a fermentation process to make yoghurt, cheese, curd, kefir, ayran, xynogala, and other types of food. Fermentation cultures provide flavour and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms.[88] They are used to leaven bread, and to convert sugars to alcohol in wine and beer. Microorganisms are used in brewing, wine making, baking, pickling and other food-making processes.[89]

Some industrial uses of Microorganisms:

Product Contribution of Microorganisms
Cheese Growth of microorganisms contributes to ripening and flavor. The flavor and appearance of a particular cheese is due in large part to the microorganisms associated with it. Lactobacillus Bulgaricus is 1 of the microbes used in production of dairy products
Alcoholic beverages yeast is used to catechumen sugar, grape juice, or malt-treated grain into booze. other microorganisms may also be used; a mold converts starch into carbohydrate to make the Japanese rice wine, sake. Acetobacter Aceti a kind of bacterium is used in production of Alcoholic beverages
Vinegar Sure leaner are used to catechumen alcohol into acerb acrid, which gives vinegar its acid gustatory modality. Acetobacter Aceti is used on production of vinegar, which gives vinegar odor of alcohol and alcoholic gustatory modality
Citric acrid Certain fungi are used to make citric acid, a common ingredient of soft drinks and other foods.
Vitamins Microorganisms are used to make vitamins, including C, B2 , B12.
Antibiotics With only a few exceptions, microorganisms are used to brand antibiotics. Penicillin, Amoxicillin, Tetracycline, and Erythromycin

H2o treatment [edit]

These depend for their ability to clean up water contaminated with organic material on microorganisms that can respire dissolved substances. Respiration may be aerobic, with a well-oxygenated filter bed such as a slow sand filter.[90] Anaerobic digestion past methanogens generate useful methane gas every bit a past-production. [91]

Energy [edit]

Microorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol,[92] and in biogas reactors to produce marsh gas.[93] Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels,[94] and bacteria to convert various forms of agronomical and urban waste product into usable fuels.[95]

Chemicals, enzymes [edit]

Microorganisms are used to produce many commercial and industrial chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Organic acids produced on a large industrial calibration by microbial fermentation include acetic acrid produced past acetic acid bacteria such as Acetobacter aceti, butyric acid made by the bacterium Clostridium butyricum, lactic acid made by Lactobacillus and other lactic acrid bacteria,[96] and citric acid produced by the mould mucus Aspergillus niger.[96]

Microorganisms are used to prepare bioactive molecules such equally Streptokinase from the bacterium Streptococcus,[97] Cyclosporin A from the ascomycete mucus Tolypocladium inflatum,[98] and statins produced past the yeast Monascus purpureus.[99]

Science [edit]

Microorganisms are essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology. The yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe are important model organisms in science, since they are simple eukaryotes that can exist grown rapidly in large numbers and are easily manipulated.[100] They are particularly valuable in genetics, genomics and proteomics.[101] [102] Microorganisms can be harnessed for uses such as creating steroids and treating peel diseases. Scientists are also because using microorganisms for living fuel cells,[103] and equally a solution for pollution.[104]

Warfare [edit]

In the Middle Ages, as an early example of biological warfare, diseased corpses were thrown into castles during sieges using catapults or other siege engines. Individuals near the corpses were exposed to the pathogen and were probable to spread that pathogen to others.[105]

In modernistic times, bioterrorism has included the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack[106] and the 1993 release of anthrax past Aum Shinrikyo in Tokyo.[107]

Soil [edit]

Microbes tin make nutrients and minerals in the soil available to plants, produce hormones that spur growth, stimulate the plant immune organization and trigger or dampen stress responses. In general a more various prepare of soil microbes results in fewer plant diseases and college yield.[108]

Human health [edit]

Human gut flora [edit]

Microorganisms tin can course an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms. For example, microbial symbiosis plays a crucial role in the immune system. The microorganisms that brand up the gut flora in the gastrointestinal tract contribute to gut amnesty, synthesize vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex boxy carbohydrates.[109] Some microorganisms that are seen to be beneficial to health are termed probiotics and are bachelor as dietary supplements, or food additives.[110]

Disease [edit]

Microorganisms are the causative agents (pathogens) in many infectious diseases. The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such every bit plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoan parasites, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing diseases such equally ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms and are not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict definition. No clear examples of archaean pathogens are known,[111] although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some archaean methanogens and human periodontal affliction.[112] Numerous microbial pathogens are capable of sexual processes that appear to facilitate their survival in their infected host.[113]

Hygiene [edit]

Hygiene is a set of practices to avoid infection or food spoilage past eliminating microorganisms from the surroundings. Equally microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are found nigh everywhere, harmful microorganisms may exist reduced to adequate levels rather than actually eliminated. In food preparation, microorganisms are reduced past preservation methods such as cooking, cleanliness of utensils, curt storage periods, or by depression temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, as with surgical equipment, an autoclave is used to kill microorganisms with heat and pressure.[114] [115]

In fiction [edit]

  • Osmosis Jones, a 2001 film, and its show Ozzy & Drix, set in a stylized version of the human body, featured anthropomorphic microorganisms.
  • War of the Worlds (2005 film), when Conflicting lifeforms attempt to conquer earth, they are ultimately defeated by a mutual Microbe to which Humans are allowed.

Encounter also [edit]

  • Catalogue of Life
  • Impedance microbiology
  • Microbial biogeography
  • Microbial intelligence
  • Microbiological culture
  • Microbivory, an eating behavior of some animals feeding on living microbes
  • Nanobacterium
  • Nylon-eating bacteria
  • Petri dish
  • Staining

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ The give-and-take microorganism () uses combining forms of micro- (from the Greek: μικρός, mikros, "small") and organism from the Greek: ὀργανισμός, organismós, "organism"). It is usually written equally a single discussion merely is sometimes hyphenated (micro-organism), specially in older texts. The breezy synonym microbe () comes from μικρός, mikrós, "modest" and βίος, bíos, "life".

References [edit]

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External links [edit]

  • Microbes.info is a microbiology information portal containing a vast drove of resource including manufactures, news, often asked questions, and links pertaining to the field of microbiology.
  • Our Microbial Planet A gratis affiche from the National Academy of Sciences most the positive roles of micro-organisms.
  • "Uncharted Microbial World: Microbes and Their Activities in the Environment" Report from the American Academy of Microbiology
  • Agreement Our Microbial Planet: The New Science of Metagenomics A 20-folio educational booklet providing a basic overview of metagenomics and our microbial planet.
  • Tree of Life Eukaryotes
  • Microbe News from Genome News Network
  • Medical Microbiology On-line textbook
  • Through the microscope: A expect at all things small On-line microbiology textbook by Timothy Paustian and Gary Roberts, University of Wisconsin–Madison
  • Microorganisms in the pond h2o on YouTube
  • Methane-spewing microbe blamed in worst mass extinction. CBCNews

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism

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